Closing the Gap socio-economic targets

Socio-economic target 1

Outcome: Aboriginal people enjoy long and healthy lives.
Target: Close the gap in life expectancy within a generation, by 2031.

Outcomes

For Aboriginal people to enjoy long and healthy lives, health and wellbeing must be understood holistically, as encompassing not just physical health but also social, emotional, cultural, spiritual and ecological wellbeing for individuals and communities.

Life expectancy estimates cannot be produced for Aboriginal people in Victoria due to the small number of Aboriginal deaths reported. Nationally, Aboriginal males born in 2020-2022 are expected to live to 71.9 years and females to 75.6 years. This compares to life expectancy for non-Indigenous males at 80.6 years and females at 83.8 years. Nationally, the target shows some improvement but is not on track to be met.

Context and issues

This outcome is closely connected to other National Agreement socio-economic targets, including education and employment, access to health and social services, cultural connection and identity and appropriate housing. The disruption of Aboriginal ways of living by colonisation and government policies over a long period, along with the ongoing systemic racism experienced by Aboriginal people, has had harmful effects on their access to these basic human needs and rights, adversely impacting their health and wellbeing. A strong, well-resourced Aboriginal Community-Controlled sector is crucial for improving Aboriginal life expectancy and ensuring that the Aboriginal community has access to culturally safe care that is responsive to their needs, addresses systemic barriers and reflects their holistic understanding of health and wellbeing.

We are committed to building a self-determined, sustainable and culturally safe health system because we know that this is required to create equitable access to health services that deliver better health and wellbeing outcomes for Aboriginal people in Victoria. We are working in partnership with community to deliver this through the Aboriginal Health and Wellbeing Partnership Agreement and Action Plan 2023-2025.

Looking forward

To close the gap in life expectancy for Aboriginal people we will take a whole-of-government approach to embedding Aboriginal understandings of health and wellbeing in government policies and practices.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

¹⁹Socio-economic outcome area 1 - Closing the Gap data dashboard, Productivity Commission (2026) <https://www.pc.gov.au/closing-the-gap-data/dashboard/outcome-area/long-and-healthy-lives/>.

²⁰Socio-economic outcome area 1 - Closing the Gap data dashboard, Productivity Commission (2026) <https://www.pc.gov.au/closing-the-gap-data/dashboard/outcome-area/long-and-healthy-lives/>.

²¹ Socio-economic outcome area 1 - Closing the Gap data dashboard, Productivity Commission (2026) <https://www.pc.gov.au/closing-the-gap-data/dashboard/outcome-area/long-and-healthy-lives/>.

Socio-economic target 2

Outcome: Aboriginal children are born healthy and strong.
Target: By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal babies with a healthy birthweight to 91 per cent.

Outcomes

Being born healthy is fundamental to Aboriginal babies having a strong start to life, and ultimately the health and wellbeing of Aboriginal communities.

Disparities in birthweight between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal babies also exist. In 2023, 88.9 per cent of Aboriginal babies born in Victoria were of a healthy birthweight, compared to 93.8 per cent of non-Aboriginal babies in Victoria.²² Victoria’s performance is on par with the national average of 88.9 per cent in 2023, but has not improved since 2017 (the baseline year). Victoria is currently not on track to meet this target without further action.²³

Context and issues

Like all babies, Aboriginal babies are most likely to be born healthy and strong when their mothers, families and communities are healthy and supported. This highlights the importance of policies and services that take a family-centred approach and address the broader social determinants that influence outcomes for children. Maternal health, cultural safety, freedom from racism, and secure access to housing, food and family support are key determinants of healthy birthweight outcomes for Aboriginal babies, reinforcing the need for holistic, family-centred and culturally safe early life services.²⁴

By taking a holistic approach to understanding family circumstances, Maternal and Child Health (MCH) services can identify and support Aboriginal families to respond to factors affecting health outcomes in culturally safe ways. These factors may include systemic racism, intergenerational trauma, housing stability, connection to culture, food security, employment and education – all of which play a critical role in maternal and child wellbeing. Ensuring these factors are considered is crucial to strengthening primary and preventative approaches that enable Aboriginal babies to have the best start in life.

Culturally safe pre- and post-natal services are therefore essential to ensuring Aboriginal children are born healthy and strong. Koori Maternity Services (KMS) play an integral role in improving outcomes for Aboriginal mothers and babies by providing flexible, holistic and culturally safe pregnancy care, birth support and post‑natal care for Aboriginal women, women having Aboriginal babies and their families. KMS are tailored to the needs of the local community and are delivered by ACCOs and public hospitals at 25 sites across Victoria.²⁵

While this represents a significant increase in absolute numbers, growth in access to KMS has also occurred in relative terms, with both the number and proportion of Aboriginal women engaging with culturally safe maternity services increasing over time. However, continued gaps in coverage indicate that further expansion is required to reach all eligible families.²⁶

Looking forward

We know that more Aboriginal babies will thrive when mothers and families are connected to well-resourced, culturally safe services. By focusing on strengthening culturally safe, continuous and holistic maternity and early years care, we will work in partnership with Community to address systemic discrimination and consequential intergenerational trauma which have acted as drivers of unequal health outcomes for Aboriginal babies and children.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

Socio-economic target 3

Outcome: Aboriginal children are engaged in high-quality, culturally appropriate early childhood education in their early years.
Target: By 2025, increase the proportion of Aboriginal children enrolled in Year Before Full-time Schooling (YBFS) early childhood education to 95 per cent.

Overview

Culturally focused early years programs can set an Aboriginal child up for a lifetime of learning and development. High-quality and strength-based programs enable them to connect to culture, language and Country, which are key protective factors for strong early years outcomes.

Victoria shows strong participation for Aboriginal children enrolled in a preschool (kindergarten) program, performing better than the national figure and with rates appearing approximately 100 per cent. Nationally, the target is on track to be met, with 94.2 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in the YBFS age cohort were enrolled in a preschool program in 2024 – and with broader work underway to develop a new target.

Context and issues

Aboriginal children experience strong learning and development outcomes when they learn in culturally safe environments, including positive outcomes in language, cognitive skills and social and emotional wellbeing.

The Early Years Summit, a Closing the Gap sector strengthening initiative led by Bubup Wilam and the Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages, reinforced the need for Victoria to recognise and strengthen an Aboriginal Community-Controlled early years education sector. The components of this sector would include:

• Respect and support for Aboriginal self-determination
• Strengths-based and potential focused settings and approaches that include Aboriginal Early Years long-day cares and kindergartens
• Family-centred services and approaches
• Identity Strengthening
• Language learning and Language revitalisation
• Embedding Country, culture and Community
• Integrated health and wellbeing to support overall development and learning potential
• A strong and supported Aboriginal workforce.

This requires long-term, sustainable funding, embedding Aboriginal self-determined accountability, and supporting workforce development and sector growth.

We remain committed to ensure the target for early childhood education continues to be met and that all Aboriginal children in Victoria have access to high-quality and culturally safe early childhood education – whether delivered through universal services or the Aboriginal early years sector. We will continue to support growth in Aboriginal teachers and educators delivering kindergarten and early years programs through the Aboriginal Pathways Scholarship program, which is part of the 2023 Best Start, Best Life Workforce Strategy.

Looking forward

To support Aboriginal children to thrive, we will focus on building a strong, clearly recognised Aboriginal early years sector, while ensuring all early years services respect and support Aboriginal children’s rights, inclusion and cultural safety.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

Socio-economic target 4

Outcome: Aboriginal children thrive in their early years.
Target: By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal children assessed as developmentally on track in all five domains of the Australian Early Development Census to 55 per cent.

Overview

Early childhood experiences are fundamental in shaping lifelong health, educational achievement and wellbeing outcomes.

The Australian Early Development Census (AEDC) is a measure of how young children across Australia are developing as they begin school. The AEDC assesses development across five domains: physical health and wellbeing; social competence; emotional maturity; language and cognitive skills (school based); and communication skills and general knowledge.

In 2024, 35.8 per cent of Aboriginal and 54.2 per cent of non-Aboriginal children in Victoria were assessed as being developmentally on track in all five domains of the AEDC.²⁹ Victoria has shown limited improvement on this target since 2018 (the baseline year) and is not on track to achieve its target by 2031. Comparatively, Victoria is performing above the national average of 33.9 per cent for Aboriginal children, with national progress on this target worsening over time (dropping from 35.2 per cent in the baseline year of 2018 to 33.9 per cent in 2024).³⁰

Context and issues

Aboriginal children and their families have the best outcomes when they have their basic health and wellbeing rights and needs met and are connected to Country, culture and Community at key stages of a child’s development.

Through Balert Gerrbik: Koorie Families as First Educators (KFFE), we are also funding nine ACCOs to deliver evidence-based parenting support in ten locations across Victoria. This provides families with culturally safe, evidence-based parenting support from pre-birth to school age. By recognising parents and families as a child’s first and most important teachers, we can support a holistic approach to strengthening Aboriginal children’s development.

Looking forward

Culturally appropriate metrics to assess child development are needed to ensure that supports are meeting the genuine needs of Aboriginal children. With this information we will work in partnership with Community to assess needs and reshape how early years systems are designed, funded and delivered so that they work with and for Aboriginal children, families and communities. More focus is needed on Aboriginal-led design of data and support integrated models of care centred around holistic approaches to family wellbeing.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

Socio-economic target 5

Outcome: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students achieve their full learning potential.
Target: By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people (age 20-24) attaining Year 12 or equivalent qualification to 96 per cent.

Overview

Access to high-quality and culturally safe education is integral to supporting Aboriginal students to reach their desired potential and achieve better life outcomes. Completing Year 12 or an equivalent qualification opens pathways for students to enter further education, access a broader range of career opportunities and potentially earn higher wages. This in turn enables them to enjoy a better quality of life and improved social and emotional wellbeing.³¹

While there has been a steady improvement over the past decade in the proportion of students completing secondary education, Victoria is not on track to close the gap between Aboriginal students and non-Aboriginal students.³² In 2021, the proportion of Aboriginal Victorians aged 20–24 years old attaining a Year 12 or equivalent qualification was 72.6 per cent, compared with 91.1 per cent for non-Aboriginal Victorians.³³ This is an improvement on the 2016 baseline figure of 69.6 per cent, and above the average of 68.1 per cent for Aboriginal people nationally in 2021.³⁴

Context and issues

To support Aboriginal students at every stage of their learning journey, Victoria is working in partnership with the Victorian Aboriginal Education Association Incorporated (VAEAI) to deliver Marrung: Aboriginal Education Plan 2016–2026 (Marrung). Marrung sets out a shared vision for an education system that is inclusive, responsive and respectful of Aboriginal people, and where Aboriginal learners are supported to succeed while feeling strong in their cultural identity. For example, in 2024 in regional Victoria, Early Years Engagement Program facilitators partnered with Koorie Engagement Support Officers and Department of Education Kindergarten Improvement Advisors to support hundreds of educators and early learning services to strengthen Aboriginal inclusion and self-determination in their programs. This successful collaboration reached over 135 educators and 320 early years services, demonstrating the value of structured engagement and partnership to enable lasting change in early years services.³⁵

Looking forward

Despite the significant work underway in Victoria, we need to improve Aboriginal children and young people’s access to, engagement with, and experiences of education throughout their entire schooling journey. We can achieve this by addressing barriers across the system and ensuring learning environments are flexible, culturally safe and supportive.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

Socio-economic target 6

Outcome: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students reach their full potential through further education pathways.
Target: By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 25–34 years who have completed a tertiary qualification (Certificate III and above) to 70 per cent.

Overview

Access to tertiary education is an important pathway for Aboriginal people to achieve long-term economic security, strong wellbeing outcomes and greater opportunities to contribute to their communities.

Victoria has recorded year-on-year improvements in the proportion of Aboriginal people aged 25-34 years who have completed a tertiary qualification (Certificate III and above). In 2021, 58.5 per cent of Aboriginal Victorians aged 25-34 years completed a Certificate III qualification or higher, compared with 78.3 per cent of non-Aboriginal Victorians.³⁶ This is significantly higher than the national average for Aboriginal people of 47 per cent in 2021, however Victoria is not on track to meet the target by 2031.³⁷

Context and issues

We heard that Aboriginal students face persistent barriers to accessing and completing tertiary education, particularly within vocational education and training.

ACCOs have made significant contributions to improving educational outcomes for Aboriginal students. Three ACCO Registered Training Organisations (RTOs) currently offer certified accredited courses in areas such as mental and physical health, community services and management. They also provide Aboriginal-led education and training support for Aboriginal people of all ages, recognising that learning is a lifelong endeavour.

Looking forward

To improve tertiary education outcomes for Aboriginal people, systemic barriers to tertiary participation must be addressed, including by supporting and strengthening the role of ACCOs as accredited training providers and building stronger, more effective partnerships with TAFEs, RTOs and universities. By recognising Aboriginal‑led training, supporting study on Country, strengthening career pathways within and into the Aboriginal sector workforce, and developing stronger and more supportive opportunities and pathways into the university sector, we will better support Aboriginal students to access, complete and benefit from tertiary education in ways that align with their aspirations.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

Socio-economic target 7

Outcome: Aboriginal youth are engaged in employment or education.
Target: By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal youth (15-24 years) who are in employment, education or training to 67 per cent.

Overview

Employment and education are essential to improving life outcomes for Aboriginal young people, including economic stability and prosperity, health and wellbeing.

In 2021, 65.5 per cent of Aboriginal Victorians aged 15-24 years were recorded as being fully engaged in employment, education or training.³⁸ While this figure has been improving, the proportion of Aboriginal young people in Victoria participating in employment, education or training remains significantly lower than for non-Aboriginal Victorian young people aged 15-24 years, with 81.6 per cent engagement in 2021.³⁹ Victoria is performing better than the national average, nationally 58 per cent of Aboriginal young people were recorded as being engaged in education, training and employment in 2021, but is not on track to meet the target.⁴⁰

Context and issues

We heard that Aboriginal young people disengage from education, often during the middle secondary years, due to a lack of culturally safe learning environments, limited access to community‑based supports and few opportunities to learn or train on Country. Financial barriers, limited career guidance and mentorship, experiences of racism and a lack of visible role models further contribute to disengagement, particularly for Aboriginal young people facing multiple and intersecting challenges.

ACCOs and TOCs have made a significant contribution to providing culturally safe education, training and employment opportunities, particularly through place‑based, community‑connected approaches. For example, the Victorian Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation’s (VACCHO) Aboriginal Student Support Model provides wrap-around support, covering costs such as travel, accommodation and learning materials for students enrolled in their Education and Training Unit. By reducing financial strain, students can stay engaged in higher education and training, contributing to improvements in retention and completion rates.

While these Aboriginal-led organisations provide culturally safe and secure employment and learning pathways for many Aboriginal Victorians, significant barriers remain for Aboriginal young people accessing and retaining secure employment within the private and government sectors.

Furthermore, pay parity and career advancement opportunities for Aboriginal people within the Victorian Public Service (VPS) workforce are problematic. For example, in the whole VPS (including Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander employees) 15.1 per cent were VPS Grade 6 and 16.8 per cent were VPS Grade 4 in 2025. Of the estimated 1.41 per cent of the VPS who identified as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander, only 11.5 per cent were VPS Grade 6, but 21.4 per cent were VPS Grade 4.⁴¹

Through Marrung, Victoria is supporting Aboriginal young people to transition successfully into further education, training and employment, and enabling access to education opportunities at all stages of life. The Yuma Yirramboi Strategy: Invest in Tomorrow (2022) further strengthens this focus by creating job opportunities and improving pathways to employment for Aboriginal Victorians. Together, these strategies reflect the Victorian Government’s commitment to working in partnership with Community to support meaningful learning and career pathways for Aboriginal young people.

Looking forward

Improving outcomes for Aboriginal young people will require the development of a resource co-designed and led by Aboriginal young people, that addresses the systemic barriers to education, training and employment for Aboriginal young people. Successful development and implementation of this resource requires strong partnerships across government, education providers, Aboriginal organisations and the private sector.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

Socio-economic target 8

Outcome: Strong economic participation and development of Aboriginal people and communities.
Target: By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal people aged 25-64 who are employed to 62 per cent.

Overview

Economic participation is essential to Aboriginal people being able to determine their future. Aboriginal people have had sustainable economies for thousands of years based on their connection to, and care for, Country – its land, water and resources. The adverse economic outcomes experienced by Aboriginal people in Victoria today are directly linked to the ongoing effects of colonisation and systemic discrimination.

In 2021, 62 per cent of Aboriginal people in Victoria aged 25-64 years were employed, which is above the national figure of 55.7 per cent.⁴² However, a significant gap remains compared with non‑Aboriginal Victorians, where 78.4 per cent of people in the same age group were recorded as being employed in 2021.⁴³ This gap highlights the need to focus on the factors underpinning the differential employment rates between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Victorians, as well as the availability, quality, security and sustainability of employment across all workforce sectors.⁴⁴

Context and issues

The Yuma Yirramboi Strategy underpins the Victorian Government’s long‑term approach to advancing Aboriginal economic participation and prosperity through coordinated public and private sector action. The strategy recognises the central role of Aboriginal organisations in driving economic outcomes, with ACCOs being the largest employer of Aboriginal Victorians and TOCs providing significant employment opportunities, particularly in regional Victoria.

While ACCOs and TOCs employ the highest proportion of Aboriginal people within their workforces, the private and government sectors employ a larger number of Aboriginal workers overall due to their relative size. ACCOs, TOCs and Aboriginal‑owned businesses nonetheless play a uniquely important role by providing culturally safe workplaces that are embedded in community, and by offering employment, training, mentoring and supported career pathways. Together, these organisations form a critical foundation for strengthening Aboriginal employment outcomes and long‑term economic participation.

Aboriginal communities continue to face barriers to economic participation, including an overreliance on short‑term government funding, which can limit the financial sustainability and workforce stability of ACCOs and TOCs. Consistent with National Agreement Priority Reform Four, addressing this issue requires better access to, and use of, shared data to inform long‑term, sustainable investment and workforce planning. This includes action on two interconnected fronts:

• using improved data and evidence to support the sustainable growth and expansion of the ACCO and TOC sectors, strengthening their capacity to create additional culturally safe employment opportunities
• using data to identify and dismantle systemic barriers within mainstream government and non‑government employment systems – including recruitment, retention and progression practices – to improve Aboriginal access to secure employment pathways across the broader economy.

Beyond the ACCO and TOC sector, Aboriginal people experience additional workforce stressors that affect employment and long-term retention. This includes factors such as cultural responsibilities carried by Aboriginal workers, and the effort required to create culturally safe workplaces, which is not consistently recognised or resourced.

Looking forward

Strengthening Aboriginal economic and workforce outcomes will require a partnership approach between ACCOs and the public and private sector to create and implement Aboriginal-led economic strategies that support sustainable employment, business growth and long-term economic security. Further action is also needed to support TOCs and Aboriginal businesses to monetise cultural capital in a Community-driven and culturally safe way.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

Socio-economic target 9

Outcome: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people secure appropriate, affordable housing that is aligned with their priorities and need.
Target 9a: By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people living in appropriately sized (not overcrowded) housing to 88 per cent.
Target 9b: By 2031, all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander households:

• within discrete Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities receive essential services that meet or exceed the relevant jurisdictional standard.
• in or near to a town receive essential services that meet or exceed the same standard as applies generally within the town (including if the household might be classified for other purposes as a part of a discrete settlement such as a “town camp” or “town-based reserve”).

Overview

Safe, stable and culturally appropriate housing is fundamental to Aboriginal people’s health, wellbeing and ability to thrive socially and economically. Having a secure home supports strong family life, access to education and employment opportunities, and connection to culture and community.

As at 2021, Victoria was exceeding Target 9a with 88.8 per cent of Aboriginal people in Victoria were living in appropriately sized housing. This represents an improvement on performance in the baseline year of 2016, when 87.6 per cent of Aboriginal people in Victoria were living in appropriately sized housing.⁴⁵ However, relative housing disadvantage for Aboriginal people persists, with 93.7 per cent of non-Aboriginal Victorians living in appropriately sized housing in 2021.⁴⁶

Target 9b relates to the essential services that enable Aboriginal households in discrete Aboriginal communities to thrive. Victoria’s two discrete Aboriginal communities, the Lake Tyers and Framlingham communities, have access to essential services as defined by the National Agreement, including power, water, wastewater and solid waste management. Work to improve services in these communities is ongoing, led by DPC in partnership with the Framlingham and Lake Tyers Aboriginal Trusts.

Despite this progress, work is still required to ensure that all Aboriginal Victorians have access to stable, affordable and appropriate housing and to address ongoing disparities between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Victorians in this space.

Context and issues

Mana-na woorn-tyeen maar-takoort: Every Aboriginal Person Has a Home (2020), the self-determined Victorian Aboriginal Housing and Homelessness Framework (VAHHF), sets a long-term vision for ensuring Aboriginal people have access to safe, stable and culturally appropriate housing, grounded in self-determination and connection to Country, culture and Community. The VAHHF, which was developed in partnership with Community by Aboriginal Housing Victoria, recognises that housing outcomes are shaped by the historical and ongoing impacts of colonisation. The VAHHF calls for housing policy reform, including increased housing supply across the housing continuum and stronger coordination across housing services.

The Blueprint for the Aboriginal Specific Homelessness System in Victoria (Blueprint), launched in 2022, outlines reforms to redesign current homelessness responses so that they are Aboriginal-led, culturally safe and trauma-informed. The Blueprint focuses on preventing homelessness, strengthening coordinated pathways for people with complex needs, and shifting away from crisis-driven, reactive responses toward early intervention and proactive solutions for long-term housing stability.

Despite progress made to date, Aboriginal people continue to face significant barriers to accessing housing that reflects family size, kinship and intergenerational living arrangements with persistently high levels of housing stress, overcrowding and homelessness, and substantially lower rates of home ownership compared with the broader population.^{47 48}

Looking forward

Improving housing outcomes for Aboriginal people will require continued implementation of Mana-na woorn-tyeen maar-takoort and the Blueprint, ensuring responses are Aboriginal‑led and grounded in self‑determination. Strengthening cultural safety across public housing, community housing and homelessness services will be critical to supporting Aboriginal people and families to thrive in safe, stable and appropriate homes.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

Socio-economic target 10

Outcome: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults are not overrepresented in the criminal justice system.
Target: By 2031, reduce the rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults held in incarceration by at least 15 per cent.

Overview

This target recognises the systemic inequalities and structural biases that have resulted in the considerable ongoing overrepresentation of Aboriginal adults in the justice system, and the profound harm this causes to Aboriginal people and their communities. Reducing this overrepresentation is fundamental to supporting strong life outcomes and breaking cycles of intergenerational harm and disadvantage.

The imprisonment rate for Aboriginal adults in Victoria has fluctuated since the baseline year of 2019, with incarceration rates recorded both above and below the baseline of 1,444.4 per 100,000 people.⁴⁹ Following temporary reductions during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, incarceration rates have trended upward again from around 2022, consistent with national patterns. In 2025, the incarceration rate for Aboriginal adults in Victoria was 1,636.2 per 100,000 Aboriginal people, representing a 6 per cent decrease from the baseline in 2019.⁵⁰ This is a lower rate than the national average of 2,500.2 per 100,000 recorded during the same period.⁵¹ However, as at 2025, Aboriginal adults in Victoria remain 15.7 times more likely to be incarcerated than non-Aboriginal adults. While Victoria’s progress has regressed since 2024, Victoria has still seen a 6% reduction of adult Aboriginal incarceration in 2025 from the baseline⁵²

Recent justice data shows that Aboriginal people continue to experience increasing contact with the criminal justice system at multiple stages, not just imprisonment. Key trends include the rapid growth of Aboriginal people on remand, particularly women, and high rates of repeat involvement with the criminal justice system. These trends suggest that recent increases in incarceration are driven by broader structural, legislative and policy factors, both within and outside the justice system. The continued and increasing overrepresentation of Aboriginal people in the justice system remains substantial and requires urgent and ongoing action.

Context and issues

The overrepresentation of Aboriginal people in the criminal justice system reflects the long-lasting, far-reaching and intergenerational consequences of colonisation, dispossession, systemic racism, child removal and other discriminatory government policies. It is driven by a range of interconnected risk factors that disproportionately affect Aboriginal communities, including homelessness and unsafe housing, family and gender-based violence, limited access to education and secure employment, unmet mental health needs, and poor social and emotional wellbeing. Key issues in other socio-economic target areas also contribute to Aboriginal overrepresentation in the justice system - these include the disproportionally high rates of removal for Aboriginal children (see SET 12) and the misidentification of Aboriginal women as the predominant aggressors in family violence incidents (see SET 13). Justice system responses often intervene late and fail to address these underlying drivers, increasing the likelihood of repeated system contact.⁵⁴

Addressing these underlying drivers requires policies and practices within government that support a flourishing and interconnected Aboriginal Community-Controlled sector, working across the full spectrum of socio-economic outcomes set out in the National Agreement. Aboriginal Justice Agreements have been central to this work, progressing Aboriginal-led reform and improving justice outcomes through genuine partnership between government and Aboriginal communities.

Burra Lotjpa Dunguludja - Aboriginal Justice Agreement Phase 4 (2018) (AJA4) was developed in partnership with the Aboriginal Justice Caucus, providing a shared framework to reduce overrepresentation and strengthen culturally safe, Community-led responses across the justice system. Building on this foundation, work is underway in 2026 to develop the Aboriginal Justice Agreement Phase 5 (AJA5), which will continue to embed Aboriginal leadership, self-determination and government accountability in addressing the structural drivers of Aboriginal involvement in the justice system.

Looking forward

Reducing Aboriginal overrepresentation in the justice system will require implementation of Aboriginal-led reforms through AJA5, alongside sustained action to address systemic racism and the ongoing impacts of colonisation. Alongside the implementation of Victoria’s anti-racism strategy 2024-2029, the establishment of Nginma Ngainga Wara under the Statewide Treaty Act 2025 will ensure that government remains accountable for progress towards the elimination of institutional racism, discrimination and unconscious bias. Strengthening Aboriginal-led early intervention and diversion, restorative justice and culturally safe support services will be critical to keeping Aboriginal Victorians out of custody, supporting healing and improving justice outcomes.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

Socio-economic target 11

Outcome: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people are not overrepresented in the criminal justice system.
Target: By 2031, reduce the rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people (10-⁠17 years) in detention by at least 30 per cent.

Overview

Keeping Aboriginal children and young people out of detention is fundamental to supporting strong life outcomes and breaking intergenerational cycles of incarceration, harm and disadvantage. Reducing the overrepresentation of Aboriginal young people in the criminal justice system requires policies and practices that acknowledge and address the enduring impacts of colonisation that continue to drive overrepresentation.⁵⁵ Aboriginal children face an increased risk of experiencing family violence and contact with the child protection system, which contributes to higher rates of contact with the justice system. Detention disrupts education and family connections, harms social and emotional wellbeing and increases the likelihood of ongoing involvement with the justice system.⁵⁶

In Victoria, Aboriginal young people are over 8 times more likely to be in detention than non-Aboriginal young people.⁵⁷ There has been a significant reduction in Aboriginal youth detention rates since the baseline year, with the rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people aged 10–17 years in detention on an average day falling from 15.3 per 10,000 in 2018-19 to 8.1 per 10,000 in 2024-25. However, disparity in detention rates between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal young people remains substantial and requires urgent and ongoing action.

Context and issues

Victoria’s approach to youth justice reform is guided by Wirkara Kulpa, the Aboriginal Youth Justice Strategy 2022-2032, which centres Aboriginal self-determination, cultural strength and community leadership to reduce the overrepresentation of Aboriginal children and young people in the youth justice system. Wirkara Kulpa recognises that lasting change requires prevention, early intervention and diversion responses that are Aboriginal-led and grounded in culture, family and community, rather than punitive approaches.

This work sits within the broader governance, partnership and accountability framework established through Victoria’ss longstanding Aboriginal Justice Agreements. The Agreements have provided an enduring mechanism for Aboriginal communities to influence justice policy, priorities and reform, supporting greater Aboriginal leadership and more culturally safe responses across the justice system. Within this broader framework, Wirkara Kulpa operates as the dedicated strategy driving Aboriginal-led youth justice reform and responses for Aboriginal children, young people and their families. Wirkara Kulpa is complemented by programs directed at the root drivers of increased contact with the justice system including family violence, such as the Young Luv program which engages teenage Aboriginal women aged 13 to 18 to discuss healthy relationships.

Changes to the Youth Justice Act 2024 (Vic) also reflect this direction, seeking to strengthen community-based responses, improve safeguards for children and young people, and support alternatives to detention where appropriate.

Looking forward

Reducing Aboriginal overrepresentation in the youth justice system will require the full implementation of the new AJA5 and Wirkara Kulpa, embedding Aboriginal leadership, accountability and culturally safe practice across all responses. Strengthening Aboriginal-led early intervention, diversion and restorative justice approaches and actively addressing systemic racism and the ongoing impacts of colonisation will be critical to keeping Aboriginal children and young people strong in culture, connected to family, Community and Country, and out of the justice system.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

Socio-economic target 12

Outcome: Aboriginal children are not overrepresented in the child protection system.
Target: By 2031, reduce the rate of over-representation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in out-of-home care by 45 per cent.

Context

As the Yoorrook Justice Commission identified, the high rates of Aboriginal children in out-of-home care in Victoria are driven by structural and systemic factors rooted in colonisation, racism and the intergenerational impacts of repeated policy failures. For Aboriginal Victorians, there is an unbroken connection between their experiences with colonial child removal practices and their experiences with the current Victorian Child Protection system.⁵⁸

In Victoria in 2024, the rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children aged 0-17 years in out‑of‑home care was 90.5 per 1,000 Aboriginal children.⁵⁹ This figure represents an historic high, and is 20.5 times the out-of-home care rate for non-Aboriginal children. This is not a single year aberration – the rate of out-of-home care recorded for Aboriginal children has been increasing year-on-year since 2019 (the baseline year), when a rate of 72.8 per 1,000 was recorded. Victoria is the worst performing jurisdiction nationally for this target, with out-of-home care rates for Aboriginal children almost double the national average of 50.3 per 1,000 Aboriginal children.⁶⁰

All Aboriginal children living in Victoria deserve to experience early years that are enriched by culture, Language and connection to Community and Country. Addressing the over-representation of Aboriginal children in out-of-home care is vital to ensuring that Aboriginal children in Victoria grow up in strong families, supported by extended family and kinship networks and Elders.

Context and issues

Wungurilwil Gapgapduir: Aboriginal Children and Families Agreement (Wungurilwil Gapgapduir) and Korin Korin Balit-Djak: Aboriginal Health, Wellbeing and Safety Strategic Plan 2017-2027 (Korin Korin Balit-Djak) are complementary whole-of-government frameworks that work together to improve outcomes for Aboriginal children, families and communities across Victoria.

Korin Korin Balit-Djak is the overarching Victorian framework for action to improve outcomes in health, wellbeing and safety for Aboriginal Victorians, while Wungurilwil Gapgapduir gives effect to this vision in the child and family services system. The two frameworks support a tripartite agreement between the Aboriginal community, child and family services sector and the government that focusses specifically on transforming prevention, early intervention and child protection responses so that Aboriginal children are better supported to remain safely connected to their family, culture and Community wherever possible.

While significant work is being progressed through these frameworks, the overrepresentation of Aboriginal children in out-of-home care is persistent and continues to rise.

Looking forward

Improving outcomes for Aboriginal children and families will require the prioritisation of Aboriginal-led service design and long-term, sustainable investment that strengthens early, tailored and culturally safe supports across the child protection system, with clear indicators to track outcomes. The Supporting Stable and Strong Families scheme provides an opportunity for all Ministers and departments to ensure progress for at-risk children, young people, care leavers and families, against self-determined outcomes and measures. Increasingly redirecting funding toward prevention and early intervention services delivered by ACCOs will be critical to keeping families together, supporting reunification, and reducing harmful system involvement over time.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

Socio-economic target 13

Outcome: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander families and households are safe.
Target: By 2031, the rate of all forms of family violence and abuse against Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women and children is reduced at least by 50 per cent, as progress towards zero.

Overview

The right of all people to live safe and free from violence is a fundamental human right. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are overrepresented as both victim survivors and perpetrators of family and domestic violence.⁶¹ While family violence impacts people of all gender identities and expressions and many people in the LGBTIQA+ community, women⁶² continue to be disproportionally impacted by family violence. In Victoria, Aboriginal women in Victoria are 45 times more likely to experience family violence than non-Aboriginal women and, where violence occurs, 25 times more likely to be killed or injured^63. At the national level, updated data for this target has not yet been reported beyond the 2018-19 baseline reporting period. As a result, recent progress towards meeting this target under the National Agreement cannot yet be assessed using nationally reported data.⁶⁴

Context and issues

The effects of colonisation continue to harm Aboriginal families in Victoria. Family violence is a gendered issue and not a part of traditional Aboriginal culture.⁶⁵ Dispossession, cultural dislocation, the imposition of foreign gender hierarchies and policies of forced child removal have compounded intergenerational trauma for Aboriginal people and been linked with increased rates of family violence in Victoria.⁶⁶ Experiences of family violence are also heavily impacted by other socio-economic risk factors including homelessness, mental health and interaction with the child protection system.

Racist, persistent stereotypes can also lead to assumptions that violence against Aboriginal women is primarily perpetrated by Aboriginal men. Although the Indigenous status of perpetrators of violence against Aboriginal women is not available for reporting, such violence is perpetrated by men of all cultural backgrounds with anecdotal evidence suggesting that non-Aboriginal men make up a significant proportion of perpetrators.⁶⁷ In addition, Aboriginal women are disproportionately misidentified as the predominant aggressor. This can have devastating impacts and worsen the violence and racism they are experiencing.⁶⁸

Despite Victoria’s nation-leading family violence reforms, family violence remains a significant social and public policy issue. Reported rates of Aboriginal people experiencing family violence have steadily increased over time in Victoria, noting significant policy changes and reforms over recent years have improved awareness and understanding of family violence and have contributed to increased reporting and recording of experiences of family violence. Notwithstanding the data limitations, family violence and its impacts remain an unacceptable reality for many Victorian Aboriginal families.

Dhelk Dja: Safe Our Way – Strong Culture, Strong Peoples, Strong Families (2018) (Dhelk Dja) is Victoria’s Aboriginal-led framework that commits to strengthening the lives of Aboriginal people and enabling Aboriginal people to live free from family violence. The Dhelk Dja Partnership Forum oversees whole-of-government action plans aimed at ensuring Aboriginal people experiencing or using family and sexual violence can access Aboriginal-led, culturally safe services when they need them. An example of a priority delivered under Dhelk Dja is the design and implementation of Aboriginal Access Points as a complementary service model to The Orange Door, the statewide intake and brief intervention service for people experiencing (or at risk of experiencing) or using family violence or requiring support for child and family safety and wellbeing issues. Aboriginal Access Points offer Aboriginal-led family violence supports that are culturally safe, responsive and delivered by Aboriginal people.

Since the 2015 Royal Commission into Family Violence, the Victorian Government has been working with ACCOs to deliver family and sexual violence services, including Aboriginal-designed sexual assault services, healing programs and responses for people using violence. The Victorian Government is committed to continuing this work with ACCOs and Community to deliver on Aboriginal-led strategic priorities that address family violence under Dhelk Dja.

Looking forward

Addressing family violence will require strengthening Aboriginal-led service models, expanding culturally safe responses across Victoria, and investing in Aboriginal-led prevention initiatives that address the drivers of family violence before it starts.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

Socio-economic target 14

Outcome: Aboriginal people enjoy high levels of social and emotional wellbeing.
Target 14: Significant sustained reduction in suicide of Aboriginal people towards zero.

Overview

Social and emotional wellbeing is a holistic concept of health for Aboriginal people that extends beyond mental health to include connection to Country, culture, spirituality, ancestry, family and Community. Strong social and emotional wellbeing builds resilience, helping Aboriginal people navigate stress and adversity while reducing the risk and impact of poor mental health outcomes.

In 2026, the Productivity Commission released data for the first time on the suicide age-standardised rate for Aboriginal people that includes Victorian data.⁶⁹ Aggregate data shows that this target is worsening, with the suicide age-standardised rate for Aboriginal people in 2024 being 33.9 per 100,000 people (for New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory combined).⁷⁰

The Coroners Court of Victoria has found that Aboriginal Victorians continue to die by suicide at nearly three times the rate of non-Aboriginal Victorians, with a disproportionate impact on younger people and those living in regional areas.⁷¹

Context and issues

Many Aboriginal people and communities in Victoria are strong, resilient and thriving, with high levels of social and emotional wellbeing.⁷² At the same time, significant inequities remain, driven by structural and systemic factors that continue to affect Aboriginal people’s mental health and wellbeing.

Victoria’s approach to improving Aboriginal social and emotional wellbeing is guided by Balit Murrup – Aboriginal Social and Emotional Wellbeing Framework 2017–2027 (Balit Murrup). Balit Murrup sets out a holistic, strengths-based understanding of wellbeing that extends beyond mental health to include connection to culture, Country, community, family, identity, spirituality and self‑determination, and recognises the impacts of colonisation, intergenerational trauma and racism.

The 2021 Royal Commission into Victoria’s Mental Health System (Royal Commission) reinforced the need for this holistic approach, finding that Aboriginal people are often harmed by crisis responses that are police-led or hospital-based and lack cultural safety. The Royal Commission emphasised the need for health-led, trauma-informed and culturally appropriate crisis responses, with Aboriginal people involved in the design and delivery of new models. Similarly, the Yoorrook Justice Commission heard that government systems too often respond reactively rather than focusing on prevention and early intervention that provide healing-focused supports, with Aboriginal people coming into contact with emergency departments, police services or the justice system at the point of crisis.⁷³ In contrast to this reactive approach, ACCOs maintain a focus on primary prevention and early intervention through their important work to support Aboriginal Victorians in a holistic and culturally safe way.

Looking forward

Improving social and emotional wellbeing will require long-term, sustainable investment in Aboriginal‑led, culturally grounded models of care, guided by frameworks such as Balit Murrup. Strengthening prevention, early intervention and culturally safe crisis responses – while addressing racism and systemic barriers – will be critical to supporting Aboriginal people to thrive throughout life.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

Socio-economic target 15

Outcome: Aboriginal people maintain a distinctive cultural, spiritual, physical and economic relationship with their land water.
Target 15a: By 2030, a 15 per cent increase in Australia’s landmass subject to Aboriginal people’s legal rights or interests.
Target 15b: By 2030, a 15 per cent increase in areas covered by Aboriginal people’s legal rights or interests in the sea.

Overview

For many Aboriginal Victorians, understandings of wellbeing are holistic, grounded in the interconnection between physical, social, cultural and spiritual elements. Connection and access to land, inland waters and Sea Country are central pillars in this integrated system. Disruption of Aboriginal people’s relationship to land and sea leads to poor outcomes in health, wellbeing and community connection.

Between 2020 and 2025, Victoria has made measurable improvements towards achieving Target 15. The area of land subject to Aboriginal people’s legal rights or interests increased from 14,934 km² in 2020 to 16,350 km² in 2025, representing a 10 per cent increase over five years.⁷⁴ Over the same period, seas subject to Aboriginal rights or interests increased from 261 km² to 295 km², a 14.6 per cent increase.⁷⁵ While these changes indicate positive improvement, the current rate of growth suggests that sustained effort by government and Community partners will be required to meet the 2030 targets.

Context and issues

Access to land, inland waters and Sea Country is fundamental to Aboriginal cultural identity, spiritual wellbeing, economic opportunity and the ability to care for Country. TOCs emphasised that land and water are not only commercial assets, but also living systems that must be supported and managed through long-term stewardship grounded in cultural responsibility.

Looking forward

The ability to meet this target is contingent on the establishment and maintenance of genuine, formal partnerships with formally recognised and non-formally recognised Traditional Owner groups to allow access to land, inland waters and Sea Country and support the exercise of legal rights. Setting clear targets, progressing legislative reform, and co‑designing policies, monitoring and reporting mechanism will be critical to improving the accountability and long‑term stewardship of Country.

The Victorian Government is working with Closing the Gap partners to develop Victoria’s jurisdictional Inland Waters Target, using Water is Life: Traditional Owner Access to Water Roadmap (2022) (Water is Life) as the foundation for negotiations to return water to Traditional Owners.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

Socio-economic target 16

Outcome: Aboriginal cultures and languages are strong, supported and flourishing.
Target: By 2031, there is a sustained increase in number and strength of Aboriginal languages being spoken.

Overview

Aboriginal culture is the world’s oldest living culture and remains central to the identity, wellbeing and self‑determination of Aboriginal people. Culture and Language are intimately intertwined, together expressing Aboriginal connection to Country, lore, spirituality, kinship and practices that have been passed down for generations. Celebrating and supporting Aboriginal culture and Language across Victoria builds stronger communities, not just for Aboriginal people, but for all Victorians. This recognises that language first and foremost reconstitutes identity and belonging and is a foundational aspect of healing from intergenerational trauma and of the continuation of cultural practices. Language revitalisation occurs at all ages and across many settings, including home and community settings as well as in formal educational environments.

The 2021 Census of Population and Housing from the Australian Bureau of Statistics found that, in Victoria, 1.5 per cent of Aboriginal people used an Aboriginal language at home. The most common language spoken was Yorta Yorta, spoken by 10.8 per cent of respondents who speak an Aboriginal language.⁷⁶ The Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages (VACL) has identified 38 Aboriginal languages across 11 language families in Victoria, with language families grouped according to shared words, grammar and sounds.⁷⁷

Aboriginal language use and learning in Victoria has increased over time, reflecting sustained Community‑led language revival and reclamation efforts. However, compared to other jurisdictions nationally, Aboriginal language use in Victoria remains relatively low.⁷⁸ All Aboriginal languages spoken in Victoria are classified as revival or reclamation languages and are not currently considered ‘strong’, meaning they are not spoken fluently across all age groups and do not have widespread intergenerational transmission. Nationally, there are only 14 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages being spoken that are considered ‘strong’ in this sense.⁷⁹

Context and issues

Aboriginal people in Victoria have maintained and strengthened their cultures and languages through resilience, continuity and leadership across generations. Aboriginal culture is rich and dynamic, expressed through Language, songlines, ancestry, kinship systems and deep connection to Country, including places of cultural significance. These Community foundations continue to sustain identity, wellbeing and the transmission of knowledge and values to future generations. Community-led programs and events that celebrate Aboriginal culture and languages continue to be held across Victoria. Annual initiatives such as the Ricci Marks Awards, NAIDOC Awards and the Aboriginal Honour Roll recognise and honour the contributions, leadership and achievements of Aboriginal people.

The Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages (VACL) is the peak body for Language revitalisation in Victoria, working with language groups across the state to develop resources, promote Language use and secure Language for future generations. As part of the Victorian Government's commitment to sector strengthening, VACL has been funded to deliver a Strategic Development Plan to revitalise Aboriginal languages. The project scope includes reviewing how Aboriginal organisations embed Language in their work and developing a blueprint for work required to revitalise Aboriginal languages across the sector.

Language revitalisation is also supported by the Victorian Government through investment in initiatives such as the Koorie Oral History Program⁸⁰ and Marrung: Aboriginal Education Plan 2016–2026, which has expanded Language teaching in schools, reaching 35 Victorian government schools in 2024.⁸¹ While revitalisation through formal education plays an important role, grassroots and community-led revival, protection and transmission of language and culture remains essential to ensuring preservation and continuity for future generations. Identifying and progressing Aboriginal language revitalisation opportunities across portfolios can create positive impacts for Aboriginal people in many other aspects of life, including health, wellbeing, education, justice, employment, housing, land and waterways, economic development and arts.

Evidence demonstrates that strong connections to culture – particularly through Language use – are associated with positive outcomes across social and emotional wellbeing, education, economic participation and community safety.⁸²

Looking forward

Delivering this target will require a long-term, Aboriginal-led language revitalisation strategy that supports community-led programs, protects cultural and intellectual property, and enables Aboriginal languages to flourish for future generations.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.

Socio-economic target 17

Outcome: Aboriginal people have access to information and services enabling participation in informed decision-making regarding their own lives.
Target: By 2026, Aboriginal people have equal levels of digital inclusion.

Overview

Digital inclusion is essential for Aboriginal self-determination, facilitating access to a range of economic and social opportunities, as well as health, education, government and utility services.⁸³ Socio-economic factors such as education, housing and employment affect digital inclusion – similarly, digital inclusion (or lack thereof) impacts socio-economic standing.

Digital inclusion means having access to reliable internet infrastructure, affordable digital services and devices, and the skills and confidence to use technology safely and effectively.⁸⁴ In Victoria, insufficient and incomplete data makes it difficult to measure progress toward digital inclusion for Aboriginal people or to fully understand and address existing barriers.⁸⁵

Available data shows that in 2022-23, 92.5 per cent of Aboriginal people in Victoria reported using the internet in the past three months, and 89.2 per cent reported using it daily.⁸⁶ These figures exceed digital usage reported nationally by Aboriginal people over the same period, which were 88.3 per cent and 81.3 per cent respectively.⁸⁷ However, as there is no comparable data for non-Aboriginal people in Victoria or nationally, it is not currently possible to determine the gap in digital inclusion, nor to measure progress towards achieving parity between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Victorians.⁸⁸

Context and issues

The 2022 Digital Inclusion Statement (DIS) outlines how the Victorian Government will invest in technology, infrastructure and skills to improve digital access for all Victorians. The DIS includes initiatives to address barriers related to access, affordability, capability and online safety, including the Connecting Victoria program, which is delivering more than 1,300 mobile and broadband upgrades across the state communities. While the DIS does not include Aboriginal-specific modelling of impacts, national evidence and digital inclusion modelling indicate that large-scale connectivity investments are expected to deliver significant benefits for Aboriginal communities, particularly in regional and rural areas where digital exclusion is most pronounced. As a result, these initiatives are considered key enablers of improved access to services, education, employment and participation for Aboriginal Victorians and support progress toward Closing the Gap digital inclusion commitments.

Looking forward

Delivering this target will focus on strengthening Aboriginal digital inclusion, building digital skills and capability, supporting Aboriginal-led data governance, and improving access to safe, affordable and reliable digital services to reduce isolation and support informed decision-making across all stages of life.

Implementation Plan Actions

See Appendix 3 for further action details.